Abstract The paper introduces the book, "America's Longest War: United States and Vietnam 1950-1975", by George C. Herring. Specifically, it discusses three topics from Chapter 6 and then explains each according to what the author writes. It also looks at how the Vietnam War is being compared increasingly to the current war with Iraq and how, as this chapter clearly shows, there are many reasons for the comparison. It shows how President Johnson began fighting an uphill battle as public opinion about the war began to swing against it, just as President Bush is facing growing opposition to the war with Iraq.
From the Paper ""The President's Decisions." President Johnson, partly on advice from such advisers as Clifford, Westmoreland, and Bunker, decided in late 1967 that new forces should not be sent to South Vietnam, and the country should be more prepared to fight on its own. The author writes, "Johnson's advisers agreed that from a long-range standpoint the key to achieving American objectives was south Vietnam's ability to stand on its own" (Herring 239). By early 1968, the President had informed South Vietnam that we would continue to send assistance and equipment, but "limited manpower." During this time, President Johnson also agreed, heavily leaning on the advice of Dean Rusk, that bombing in Vietnam should be cut back, and peace talks should open again with the North Vietnamese. It seems that many of the President's decisions were based on guidance from his closest advisors, and somewhat on public opinion."
Abstract Logical fallacies are methods of argumentation or persuasion that, in simplest terms, look or sound good, but do not stand up to critical analysis. This paper explains that, although there are more, three very commonly used examples of logical fallacies are 'straw man', 'equivocation' and 'ad hominem'. It shows how these fallacies are frequently used to get people to agree to desired proposals or plans. They are often used when those doing the proposing either are not sure their facts are strong enough to get cooperation or those doing the proposing are sure that people will not agree because the proposals are not honest/necessary or useful to begin with.
From the Paper "The straw man fallacy includes such approaches as stereotyping, caricaturing, name-calling, slanted language or deck-stacking. Basically the idea is to portray your opponent as weak so that your own arguments look stronger. Reporting the opposing views in overly simplified terms or in concepts that are absurd are relied on to make the opinion or position offered by those employing the technique, seem stronger and more sensible."
Discusses Chomsky's theory of language acquisition, in which there exists some sort of "language organ" that makes language possible for humans & impossible for animals.
675 words (approx. 2.7 pages), 9 sources, 1993, $ 23.95
From the Paper "Nativist Theories of Second Language Acquisition: Noam Chomsky
Introduction
According to Larsen-Freeman and Long (1991), nativist theories posit the existence of a specific, innate biological capacity or organ that makes learning possible. Some of those nativist theories are specific to language acquisition, with Noam Chomsky perhaps the earliest and foremost exponent of the theory that language acquisition follows a universal pattern based on an innate language organ, or system of hard-wiring within the brain.
Noam Chomsky and Universal Grammar
Chomsky became most visible in his struggles with the researchers who were working with chimpanzees and gorillas to ..."
Abstract Second Language Acquisition is a field of inquiry that abounds in theories, while at the same time no single approach has adequately explained how language acquisition takes place. One reason for this might be that linguists interested in SLA have been trained in different disciplines, such as linguistics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics and neurolinguistics. The paper explains that, naturally, they have approached SLA from very different perspectives and treat all the variables involved in the learning process differently. The situation appears to be very confusing and frustrating. All the present theories, hypotheses, and models are all preliminary work done toward the ultimate goal of a true theory. The paper shows that in this sense, the different approaches taken by linguists and researchers are never worthless. They have uncovered bits and pieces of the whole complexity of language acquisition. Hopefully, the continuing and combined efforts made by linguists and researchers will lead to the ultimate success of establishing the true theory in language acquisition as well as in SLA.
From the Paper "Linguistics is one of the newest fields of scientific inquiry. It was developed into an independent discipline of social science in the United Sates first "as an offshoot of anthropology" in the first half of the twentieth century in an attempt to investigate into the disappearing American indigenous languages (Lakoff, 2000, p. 2-3). Traditionally, it has been concerned with the analysis of language, namely its phonology, morphology and syntax. Following this tradition, Norm Chomsky in the 1950s put forward his milestone transformational generative grammar (TGG), which assumed "an ideal speaker-listener, in a completely homogeneous speech-community" unaffected by any external factors in his exploration of the Universal Grammar (UG), the general rules of language (Chomsky, 1965, p.3). This is basically an asocial or theoretical view in linguistic studies as opposed to the social view which claims knowing a language also means "knowing how to use that language"(Wardhaugh, 2002, p.3) in social contexts. Adopting either or both of the two views, linguistics and researchers alike have postulated a multitude of theories, approaches, and models in the inquiry into the nature of language and language acquisition, which appear to be conflicting ones fighting against one another."
Abstract This paper presents an examination of the English language and its origins. The author traces through the three stages of Old English, Middle English, and Modern English and examines the development of language.
From the Paper "The English Language has been built on the backs of great nations and as these nations rose they brought with them a language that has evolved over many generations and is spoken all over the world. The history of the English language is an extensive and colorful one that has filled the lives of the linguistic scholars who have studied it with many hours of reading material. The English language and its origins will be traced through the three stages of Old English, Middle English, and Modern English. The stages will be studied in order to understand what influences have played a key role in the development of English. Also in this paper a look will be taken at the ways slang, jargon, and Colloquialism continue to the changes that English is even now under going."
Tags: development, english, history, midle, modern, old, language, words
Abstract This paper discusses the pros and cons of bilingualism focusing on the homogenizing of the world's languages and the struggle to keep some languages and cultures alive. It mentions the effects of colonial powers, the necessities of learning other languages for trade purposes and the reluctance of younger members of minority groups to learn their original tongue. Contains information such as the top nine countries language wise contain 3,300 languages. The paper also discusses the gradual process of change in a language.
From the paper:
?Bilingualism is a reality today and it will become a greater reality as time goes. The extent to which it is prevalent is evidenced by the presence of bilinguals in every country today, as well as in every social class and every age group. International travel, communication and the mass media, emigration and planetary economics have created a so-called global village whereby inhabitants speak more than their own native language."
This paper gives an evaluation of the theoretical claims, empirical evidence, and practical consequences associated with the concept of the critical period.
Abstract This paper studies the critical period hypothesis which suggests that languages cannot be learned after the age of twelve. However, an evaluation of evidence from many different sources suggests that this is not accurate. It examines sources such as: Studies of second language learning methods, wild children studies and the theories of Noam Chomsky and Stephen Krashen. Factors which make it easier for children to learn language, such as parentheses, are also discussed.
From the Paper "The "critical period" hypothesis cites a commonly observable phenomenon, the fact that children find language learning much easier than adults, and learn language remarkably quickly, to claim that language learning is more difficult, or impossible after puberty. The concept of "critical periods" was initially introduced in the study of animal behavior, where it was noticed that certain behavioral responses only emerged when stimulus was given within a particular time frame. This concept has been applied to many species, including humans, with regard to the development of specific emotional responses such as stress. In 1967 Lenneberg proposed that this concept also applied to human linguistic development, seeing language as a response, and exposure to language as the stimulus. There are two versions of this hypothesis: the "strong" version, which claims that no language acquisition is possible after puberty, and the "weak" version, which maintains that language learning will be much more difficult. A distinction is often made between "language acquisition", the way in which children unconsciously learn their native tongue, and "language learning" which implies formal instruction, and Lenneberg maintains this distinction himself."
Abstract This paper provides examples of the differences between standard English and African American Vernacular English (AAVE). It explains the development and history of this language and explores how it has been taught and passed down to the next generation. It also examines the roots and origins of AAVE and asks what the future holds.
From the Paper "There are a couple of theories as to the origin of African American Vernacular Englsh (AAVE). Some linguists believe that the language derives from West African languages. This dialect theory is based on the knowledge that most African Americans who were brought to the United States from Africa had to learn how to speak English by ear. The may have picked up some of the English words incorrectly and incorporated the incorrect words in their language. Another theory is called the creole hypothesis. This theory bases its origin on the thought that slaves developed the language themselves. The slaves, who came from many different countries in Africa formulated AAVE so that they may talk amongst themselves. They developed with is called a pidgin by combining words from their own language with new words from America. They used grammar and speech patterns that were known to them from their own language as well. The language was then indirectly taught, or passed on to their children and children's children. Future generations now know the AAVE language."
Abstract This paper examines how socio-linguistic study shows that men and women use language in different ways, which all too often leads to male-female mis-communication. It looks at how, although the dominance approach and the difference approach are the two main viewpoints in analysing gender and language, some linguists have taken a position somewhere in between the two. It explores these theories and concludes with the author's viewpoint on the subject.
From the Paper "The dominance theory emphasizes the idea that linguistic differences in women and men's language exist as a result of men's power and women's subordination. The dominance approach considers linguistic differences to be a result of traditional social differences i.e. that of man in the role of power, and woman in the role of submission. Man's authority and woman's inferiority are mirrored through their linguistic behaviour. This research focuses mainly on a variety of features, such as the use of tag questions, interruptions, questions, standard forms and minimal responses."
Abstract Language is one of the most powerful emblems of social behavior. The relationship of language and society puts forward a field of study called sociolinguistics. It is the study of relationships between language and society with the goal being a better understanding of the structure of language and how languages function in communication. This paper discusses what sociolinguistics is all about, looks at language, dialects, gender differences in speech and the issues of language and culture.
From the Paper "When two people communicate with each other, we call the system of communication they use language. In the normal transfer of information they also send vital social messages about who they are, where they come from, and with whom they are associated. To point out how much there is to say about language and society, let me refer to an example used by R.A.Hudson in Sociolinguistics. It pertains to a society of about 10, 000 Indians that occupy an area half in Brazil, half in Columbia. These Indians are divided in twenty tribes, which are grouped in five phratries. There are three crucial facts about this society that are subject to interest and present the relationship between society and language. First of all, each tribe speaks different language. Second, the five phratries are exogamous, which means that a man cannot marry a woman from the same phratry. Considering these two facts, we easily come to the following linguistic consequence: a man's wife must speak different language. The third crucial fact is that marriage is patriocal. A rule states that the woman speaks to her children using only her husband's language. The linguistic consequence is that a mother teaches her children a language she speaks as a foreigner (thus one can hardly call the children's first language their mother tongue). This Indian community can be referred to as a "sociolinguistic phenomenon". It is the perfect example for the complicated relationship language-societyand a clear answer to the question why we need sociolinguistics."
Abstract This paper provides a detailed evaluation of Chomsky's theory of Universal Grammar and innate Language Acquisition Device, which is central to the field of linguistics and psycholinguistics. It reviews the controversies surrounding Chomsky's theory and discusses alternative theories.
From the Paper "Language acquisition is undeniably biologically programmed as children all over the world, from varying cultures and linguistic environments produce the same levels of language at the same stages. Chomsky proposes that this is a direct result of Universal Grammar, which is an inherent part of every human mind. However, his theory of an innate Language Acquisition Device provokes controversy on two grounds. First is the debate between nature and nurture, with many theorists criticizing Chomsky for dismissing any environmental factors. Second, is the dispute as to whether language acquisition is an independent innate faculty as Chomsky claims, or part of the child's wider cognitive development. Such disagreements demonstrate the enormous impact Chomsky's theory has had on the field of linguistics and reflects how "the Universal Grammar theory is for many the central pillar in our understanding of language." (Cook, V. Inside Language. Arnold. 1997, p249)"
